Retardo de crecimiento intrauterino (RCIU) y sus alteraciones bioquímicas
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Muñoz Molina, L., & Hernández Barbosa, R. (2005). Retardo de crecimiento intrauterino (RCIU) y sus alteraciones bioquímicas. NOVA, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.22490/24629448.22
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Liliana Muñoz Molina
Rubinsten Hernández Barbosa
Resumen
El estudio del retardo de crecimiento intrauterino (RCIU) continúa siendo importante tanto a nivel obsté- trico como pediátrico. El interés se centra en los factores que inciden directamente en las fallas de crecimiento in útero y sobre sus consecuencias postnatales. Además del potencial genético, heredado de los padres, el desarrollo y supervivencia del feto depende directamente del suministro de los sustratos necesarios, como azúcares, ácidos grasos, proteínas, aminoácidos; de esta manera alcanza su peso potencial. Si la disponibilidad de estas fuentes disminuyen en forma persistente, la supervivencia del feto puede verse amenazada. En este artículo se hace una revisión sobre el papel que tienen dichas fuentes y sus alteraciones e implicaciones en los casos de RCIU.
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NOVA por http://www.unicolmayor.edu.co/publicaciones/index.php/nova se distribuye bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional.
Así mismo, los autores mantienen sus derechos de propiedad intelectual sobre los artículos.
Referencias
1. Lubchenco H, Hansman C, Dressler M, Boyd R. Intrauterine growth as estimated from liveborn birth weight data at 24 to 42 wk of gestation. Pediatrics 1963; 32:793-800.
2. Albersson-Wikland K, Karlberg J. Natural growth in children born small for gestation age with and without catch-up
growth. Acta Pediatr 1994; 399(Suppll):64-70.
3. Karlberg J, Albertsson-Wikland K. Growth in full-term smallfor- gestation-age infants: from birth to final height. Pediatr
Res 1995; 38:733-739.
4. Gembruch, U. and Gortner, L.. Perinatal aspects of preterm intrauterine growth restriction. Ultrasound in Obstet Gynecol. Ed. 1999; 233-239.
5. Piper, J, Xenakis, E, McFarland, M, Elliot, B, Berkus M and Langer O. Do growth-retarded premature infants have
different rates of perinatal morbidity and mortality than appropriately grown premature infants? Obstet Gynecol. 1996; 87:169-174.
6. Garite T, ClarK R, Thorp J. Intrauterine Growth restriction increases morbility and mortality among premature neonates. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004; 191:481-487.
7. Brooks A, Johnson M, Pawson M and Abdala H. Birthweigth: nature or nurture? Early Human. Devel 1995;42:29-35.
8. Gluckman, P. Endocrine and nutritional regulation of prenatal growth.. Acta Pediat Suppl 1997; 423:153-157.
9. Karsdorp V and Van J. Amino acids, glucose and lactate concentration in umbilical cord blood in relation to umbilical
artery flow patterns. Eur. J Obstet Ginecol 1994; 57:117-122.
10. Nicolini U, Nicolaides P, Fisk N, Vaughn J, Fusi L, Gleeson R et al. Limited role of fetal blood sample in prediction of
outcome in intrauterine growth retardation Lancet 1990; 336:768-772.
11. Thamotharan M, Shin B, Suddirikku T, Thamotharan SH, Garg M and Devaskar S. GLUT4 expression and subcellular localization in the intrauterine growth-restricted adult rat female offspring. .Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288: E935-E947.
12. Cetin I, Corbetta C, Sereni L, Marconi A, Bozzetti P, Pardi G and Battaglia F. Umbilical amino acid concentration in normal and growth retarded fetuses sample in utero by cordocentesis. American. J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 162:253- 261.
13. Marconi A, Cetin I, Buscaglia M. and Pardi G. Mid gestation cord sampling: what have we learned?. Placenta 1992; 13:115-122.
14. Sibley C, Glazier J and D.Sovza S. Placental transporter activity an expression and relation to fetal growth. Exp Physiol. 1997; 82:3989-402.
15. Cetin I, Marconi A, Baggiani A, Buscaglia M, Pardi G, Fennessey, P and Battaglia F. In Vivo Placental transport of
Glycine and leucine in human pregnancies. Pediatr Res 1995; 37:571-575.
16. Oey N, Den M, Vekemans M, Auge J, Wijburg F, Steiner C et al. Long-chain fatty acid oxidation during early human development. Pediatr Res 2005; 57:755-759.
17 Oey N, den Boer M, Ruiter J, Wanders R. Duran M, Waterhan H, Boer K, Vander J, Wijburg F. High activity of fatty acid oxidation enzymes in human placenta: implications for fetal- maternal disease. J Inherit Metab Dis 2003; 26:385-392.
18 Shekhawat P, Matern D and Staruss A. Fetal fatty acid oxidation disorders, their effect on maternal health and neonatal outcome: Impact of expanded newborn screening on their diagnosis and management Peadiatr Res 2005; 57: 78R-86R.
19. Vilbergssson G, Samsioe G, Wennergren M, Karlsson K. Essential fatty acids in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine
20. Giovanni M, Riva E, Agostoni C. Fatty acids in pediatric nutrition. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1995; 42:861-877.
21. Cetin I, Giovannini N, AlvinoG, Agostoni C, Riva E, Giovanini M and Pardi G. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with changes in polyiunsaturated fatty acid-maternal relationships. Pediatr Res 2002; 52:750-755.
22. Innis SM. Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids J Pediatr 2003; 143:S1-S8.
23. Sivan E, Whittaker P, Sinha D, Homko C, Lin M, Reece E and Boden G. Leptin in human pregnancy: relationship with gestacional hormones. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179:1128- 1132.
24. Jones, J., Gercel-Taylor, C. and Taylor, D. Altered cord serum lipid levels associated with small for gestational age infants. Obstet Gynecol 1999; 93:527-531.
25. Zhang B, Graziano M and Doebber T. Down-regulation of the expression of the obese gene by an antidiabetic thiazolidinedione in Zucker diabetic fatty rats and db/db mice. J Biol Chem. 1996; 271:9455-9459.
26. Hoggard N, Hunter L, Duncan J, Williams L, Trayhurn P and Mercer J. Leptin and leptin receptor mRNA and protein
expression in the murine fetus and placenta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94:11073-11078.
27. Masuzaki H, Ogawa Y, Sagawa N, Hosada K, et all. Nonadipose tissue production of leptin: leptin as a novel placenta-derived hormone in human. Obstet Gynecol Survey 1998; 53:156- 158.
28. Schubring C, Kiess W, Englaro P, Rascher W, Dotsch J et all. Levels opf leptin in maternal serum, amniotic fluid and arterial and venous cord blood: relation to neonatal and placental weight. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 82:1480-1483.
29. Muñoz L, Sabogal J, Arteaga C., Hernández R, Mockus I, Tovar J. Dterminación perinatal de leptina en madres y
neonatos con diagnóstico de retardo de crecimiento intrauterino (RCIU). Nova 2003; 1:49-56.
30. O.Brien, K.. Regulation of mineral metabolism from to infant: metabolic studies. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999; 433:88-91.
31. Rivera J, Ruel M, Santizo M, Lonnerdal B, Brown K. Zinc supplementation improves the growth of stunted rural Guetamelan infants. J Nutr 1998; 128:556-562.
32. Wiliams, R. Zinc: what is its role in biology?. Endeavour 1984; 8:65-70.
33. Dallman P. Changing iron needs from birth through adolescence. In: Fomon SJ, Zlotkin S, editors. Nutrional anemias. New York: Raven Press 1992; 29-36.
34 Connor J, Menzies S. Altered cellular distribution of iron in the central nervous system of myelin deficiente rats
Neuroscience 1990; 34: 265-271.
35. Jorgenson L, Wobken J, and Gerogielf M. Perinatal iron defienciency alters apical dendritic growth in hippocampal
CA-1 pyramidal neurons. Develop Neuroscience 2003; 25:412-420.
36. Krebs N, Bartlett A, Westcott J, et al. Exchangeable zinc pool size is smaller at birth in small for gestational age infants. Pediatr Res 2003; 53: 394.
37. Barbosa N, Okay T and Leone C. Magnesium and Intrauterine Growth Restriction A Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2005; 24:10-15.
38. Siebler T, Lopaczynski W, Terry C, Casella S, Munson P, et al. Insulin-like growth factor I receptor expression and
function in fibroblasts from to patients with deletion of de distal long arm of chromosome 15. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80:3447-3457.
39. Ducos B, Cabrol S, Houang M, Perin L, Holzenberger M, Le Bouc Y. IGF type 1 receptor ligand binding characteristics are altered in a subgroup of children with intrauterine growth retardation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86:5516-5524.
40. Laviola L, Perrini S, Belsanti G, Natalicchio A, Montrone C, Leonardini A, Vimercati A, Scioscia M, Selvaggi L, Giorgino R, Greco P and Giorgino F. Intrauterine Growth Restriction in Humans Is Associated with Abnormalities in Placental Insulin-Like Growth Factor Signaling . Endocrinol 2005; 146:1498-1505.
41. Sabogal J, Hernández R, Arteaga C, Muñoz L. Relación entre los niveles de IGF-I y la presencia o ausencia de retardo de crecimiento intrauterino (RCIU). Saludarte 2003; 9:7-24.
42. Verkauskiene R, Jaquet D., Deghmoun S, Chevenne D, Czernichow P, and Lévy-Marchal C. Smallness for Gestational Age Is Associated with Persistent Change in Insulin-Like Growth Factor I (IGF-I) and the Ratio of IGF-I/IGF-Binding Protein-3 in Adulthood J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90:5672-5676.
43 Gohlke B, Huber A, Hecher K, Fimmers R, Bartmann P and Roth C. Fetal Insulin-Like Growth Factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II, and Ghrelin in Association with Birth Weight and Postnatal Growth in Monozygotic Twins with Discordant Growth J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90:2270-2274.
44. Han, V., Bassett, N., Walton, J. and Challis J. The expression of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and IGF-binding protein (IGFBP) genes in the human placenta and membranes: evidence for IGF-IGFBP interactions at the feto-maternal interface J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81:2680-2693.
45. Cianfarini S, Germani D, Rossi P, Rossi L, Germani A, Ossicini C, et al intrauterine growth retardation: evidence for the activation of the insuline growth factor (IGF) related growthpromoting machinery and the presence of a cationindependent IGF binding protein-three proteolytic activity by two months of live. Pediatr Res 1998; 44:374-380.
46. Bhatia S, Faessen G, Carland G, Balise L, Gargosky S, Druzin M, et al. A longitudinal analysis of maternal serum insulinelike growth factor I (IGF-I) and total and nonphosphorylated IGF-binding protein-1 in human pregnancies complicared by intrauterine growth restriction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87:1864-1870.
47. Gibson J, Aplin J, White A, Westwood M. Regulation of IGF bioavailability in pregnancy. Mol Hum Reprod 2001; 7: 79-87.
48. Langford K, Nicolaides K and Miell J. Maternal and fetal insulin-like growth factor and their binding protein in the
second and third trimesters of human pregnancy. Hum Reprod 1998; 13:1389-1393.
49. Cianfarani S, Germani D, Rossi L, Argiro G, Boemi S, Lemon M, et al. IGF-I and IGF-binding protein-I are retalted to cortisol in human cord blood. Eur J Endocrinol 1998; 138:524-529.
50. Cianfarani S, Geremia C, Scott C, Germani D. Growth, IGF System, and cortisol in children with intrauterine growth retardation: is catch-up growth affected by reprogramming of the hypothalamic-pititary-adrenal axis? Pediatr Res 2002;
51:94-99.
51. Brace, R. and Moore, T. Transplacental, amniotic, urinary, and fetal fluid dynamics during very large volume fetal
intravenous infusions. Am J Obste Gynecol 199; 164:907- 916.
52. Philpson, E., Sokol, R. and William, T. Oligohydramnios: clinical associations and predictive value for intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983; 146:271.
53. Polin, R. and Fox, W. Fetal and Neonatal physiology. WB Saunders 1992.
54. Salha, S., Raymond, I., Pamela, J. and Stanley, J. Amniotic fluid composition in the fetal lamb with intrauterine growth restriction. Am. J Obstet 1999; 180:703-710.
55. Barker D, Gluckman P, Godfrey K, Harding J, Owens J, Robinson J. Fetal Nutrition and cardiovascular disease in
adult life. Lancet 1993; 341:938-941
56. Ibáñez L, Potau N, de Zegher F. Recognition of a new association: reduced fetal growth, precocious pubarche,
hyperinsulinism and ovarian dysfunction. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 2000; 61:141-142
57. Barker D, Hales C, Fall C, Osmond C, Phipps K, Clark P. Type 2 (non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidemia (syndrome X): relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 1993; 36:62-67.
58. Blair, E. and Stanley, F. Intrauterine growth and spastic cerebral palsy. I. Association with birth weight for gestational age. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 162:229-237.
59. Garite T, Clark R, Thorp J. Intrauterine growth restriction increases morbidity and mortality among premature neonates. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191:481-487.
61. Foulder-Hughes L and Cooke RWI. Motor, cognitive and behavioural disorders in children born very preterm. Dev
Med Child Neurol 2003; 45:97-103.1B
62. Lucas A, Morley R, Cole T, Lister G and Leeson-Payne C. Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born pre term. Lancet 1992; 339:261-264.
63. Borradori C, Zimine S, Warfield S, Freschi M, Sancho A, et al. Early alteration of structural and functional brain
development in premature infants born with intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatr Res 2004; 56:132-138.
64. Pryor, J. The identification and long term effects of fetal growth restriction. British J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 103:1116-
1122.
65. Ounsted, M, Moar V and Scott A. Neurological development of small-for gestational-age babies during de first year of life. Early Hum. Dev 1988; 16:166-172.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22490/24629448.22
2. Albersson-Wikland K, Karlberg J. Natural growth in children born small for gestation age with and without catch-up
growth. Acta Pediatr 1994; 399(Suppll):64-70.
3. Karlberg J, Albertsson-Wikland K. Growth in full-term smallfor- gestation-age infants: from birth to final height. Pediatr
Res 1995; 38:733-739.
4. Gembruch, U. and Gortner, L.. Perinatal aspects of preterm intrauterine growth restriction. Ultrasound in Obstet Gynecol. Ed. 1999; 233-239.
5. Piper, J, Xenakis, E, McFarland, M, Elliot, B, Berkus M and Langer O. Do growth-retarded premature infants have
different rates of perinatal morbidity and mortality than appropriately grown premature infants? Obstet Gynecol. 1996; 87:169-174.
6. Garite T, ClarK R, Thorp J. Intrauterine Growth restriction increases morbility and mortality among premature neonates. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004; 191:481-487.
7. Brooks A, Johnson M, Pawson M and Abdala H. Birthweigth: nature or nurture? Early Human. Devel 1995;42:29-35.
8. Gluckman, P. Endocrine and nutritional regulation of prenatal growth.. Acta Pediat Suppl 1997; 423:153-157.
9. Karsdorp V and Van J. Amino acids, glucose and lactate concentration in umbilical cord blood in relation to umbilical
artery flow patterns. Eur. J Obstet Ginecol 1994; 57:117-122.
10. Nicolini U, Nicolaides P, Fisk N, Vaughn J, Fusi L, Gleeson R et al. Limited role of fetal blood sample in prediction of
outcome in intrauterine growth retardation Lancet 1990; 336:768-772.
11. Thamotharan M, Shin B, Suddirikku T, Thamotharan SH, Garg M and Devaskar S. GLUT4 expression and subcellular localization in the intrauterine growth-restricted adult rat female offspring. .Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288: E935-E947.
12. Cetin I, Corbetta C, Sereni L, Marconi A, Bozzetti P, Pardi G and Battaglia F. Umbilical amino acid concentration in normal and growth retarded fetuses sample in utero by cordocentesis. American. J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 162:253- 261.
13. Marconi A, Cetin I, Buscaglia M. and Pardi G. Mid gestation cord sampling: what have we learned?. Placenta 1992; 13:115-122.
14. Sibley C, Glazier J and D.Sovza S. Placental transporter activity an expression and relation to fetal growth. Exp Physiol. 1997; 82:3989-402.
15. Cetin I, Marconi A, Baggiani A, Buscaglia M, Pardi G, Fennessey, P and Battaglia F. In Vivo Placental transport of
Glycine and leucine in human pregnancies. Pediatr Res 1995; 37:571-575.
16. Oey N, Den M, Vekemans M, Auge J, Wijburg F, Steiner C et al. Long-chain fatty acid oxidation during early human development. Pediatr Res 2005; 57:755-759.
17 Oey N, den Boer M, Ruiter J, Wanders R. Duran M, Waterhan H, Boer K, Vander J, Wijburg F. High activity of fatty acid oxidation enzymes in human placenta: implications for fetal- maternal disease. J Inherit Metab Dis 2003; 26:385-392.
18 Shekhawat P, Matern D and Staruss A. Fetal fatty acid oxidation disorders, their effect on maternal health and neonatal outcome: Impact of expanded newborn screening on their diagnosis and management Peadiatr Res 2005; 57: 78R-86R.
19. Vilbergssson G, Samsioe G, Wennergren M, Karlsson K. Essential fatty acids in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine
20. Giovanni M, Riva E, Agostoni C. Fatty acids in pediatric nutrition. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1995; 42:861-877.
21. Cetin I, Giovannini N, AlvinoG, Agostoni C, Riva E, Giovanini M and Pardi G. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with changes in polyiunsaturated fatty acid-maternal relationships. Pediatr Res 2002; 52:750-755.
22. Innis SM. Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids J Pediatr 2003; 143:S1-S8.
23. Sivan E, Whittaker P, Sinha D, Homko C, Lin M, Reece E and Boden G. Leptin in human pregnancy: relationship with gestacional hormones. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179:1128- 1132.
24. Jones, J., Gercel-Taylor, C. and Taylor, D. Altered cord serum lipid levels associated with small for gestational age infants. Obstet Gynecol 1999; 93:527-531.
25. Zhang B, Graziano M and Doebber T. Down-regulation of the expression of the obese gene by an antidiabetic thiazolidinedione in Zucker diabetic fatty rats and db/db mice. J Biol Chem. 1996; 271:9455-9459.
26. Hoggard N, Hunter L, Duncan J, Williams L, Trayhurn P and Mercer J. Leptin and leptin receptor mRNA and protein
expression in the murine fetus and placenta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94:11073-11078.
27. Masuzaki H, Ogawa Y, Sagawa N, Hosada K, et all. Nonadipose tissue production of leptin: leptin as a novel placenta-derived hormone in human. Obstet Gynecol Survey 1998; 53:156- 158.
28. Schubring C, Kiess W, Englaro P, Rascher W, Dotsch J et all. Levels opf leptin in maternal serum, amniotic fluid and arterial and venous cord blood: relation to neonatal and placental weight. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 82:1480-1483.
29. Muñoz L, Sabogal J, Arteaga C., Hernández R, Mockus I, Tovar J. Dterminación perinatal de leptina en madres y
neonatos con diagnóstico de retardo de crecimiento intrauterino (RCIU). Nova 2003; 1:49-56.
30. O.Brien, K.. Regulation of mineral metabolism from to infant: metabolic studies. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999; 433:88-91.
31. Rivera J, Ruel M, Santizo M, Lonnerdal B, Brown K. Zinc supplementation improves the growth of stunted rural Guetamelan infants. J Nutr 1998; 128:556-562.
32. Wiliams, R. Zinc: what is its role in biology?. Endeavour 1984; 8:65-70.
33. Dallman P. Changing iron needs from birth through adolescence. In: Fomon SJ, Zlotkin S, editors. Nutrional anemias. New York: Raven Press 1992; 29-36.
34 Connor J, Menzies S. Altered cellular distribution of iron in the central nervous system of myelin deficiente rats
Neuroscience 1990; 34: 265-271.
35. Jorgenson L, Wobken J, and Gerogielf M. Perinatal iron defienciency alters apical dendritic growth in hippocampal
CA-1 pyramidal neurons. Develop Neuroscience 2003; 25:412-420.
36. Krebs N, Bartlett A, Westcott J, et al. Exchangeable zinc pool size is smaller at birth in small for gestational age infants. Pediatr Res 2003; 53: 394.
37. Barbosa N, Okay T and Leone C. Magnesium and Intrauterine Growth Restriction A Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2005; 24:10-15.
38. Siebler T, Lopaczynski W, Terry C, Casella S, Munson P, et al. Insulin-like growth factor I receptor expression and
function in fibroblasts from to patients with deletion of de distal long arm of chromosome 15. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80:3447-3457.
39. Ducos B, Cabrol S, Houang M, Perin L, Holzenberger M, Le Bouc Y. IGF type 1 receptor ligand binding characteristics are altered in a subgroup of children with intrauterine growth retardation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86:5516-5524.
40. Laviola L, Perrini S, Belsanti G, Natalicchio A, Montrone C, Leonardini A, Vimercati A, Scioscia M, Selvaggi L, Giorgino R, Greco P and Giorgino F. Intrauterine Growth Restriction in Humans Is Associated with Abnormalities in Placental Insulin-Like Growth Factor Signaling . Endocrinol 2005; 146:1498-1505.
41. Sabogal J, Hernández R, Arteaga C, Muñoz L. Relación entre los niveles de IGF-I y la presencia o ausencia de retardo de crecimiento intrauterino (RCIU). Saludarte 2003; 9:7-24.
42. Verkauskiene R, Jaquet D., Deghmoun S, Chevenne D, Czernichow P, and Lévy-Marchal C. Smallness for Gestational Age Is Associated with Persistent Change in Insulin-Like Growth Factor I (IGF-I) and the Ratio of IGF-I/IGF-Binding Protein-3 in Adulthood J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90:5672-5676.
43 Gohlke B, Huber A, Hecher K, Fimmers R, Bartmann P and Roth C. Fetal Insulin-Like Growth Factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II, and Ghrelin in Association with Birth Weight and Postnatal Growth in Monozygotic Twins with Discordant Growth J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90:2270-2274.
44. Han, V., Bassett, N., Walton, J. and Challis J. The expression of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and IGF-binding protein (IGFBP) genes in the human placenta and membranes: evidence for IGF-IGFBP interactions at the feto-maternal interface J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81:2680-2693.
45. Cianfarini S, Germani D, Rossi P, Rossi L, Germani A, Ossicini C, et al intrauterine growth retardation: evidence for the activation of the insuline growth factor (IGF) related growthpromoting machinery and the presence of a cationindependent IGF binding protein-three proteolytic activity by two months of live. Pediatr Res 1998; 44:374-380.
46. Bhatia S, Faessen G, Carland G, Balise L, Gargosky S, Druzin M, et al. A longitudinal analysis of maternal serum insulinelike growth factor I (IGF-I) and total and nonphosphorylated IGF-binding protein-1 in human pregnancies complicared by intrauterine growth restriction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87:1864-1870.
47. Gibson J, Aplin J, White A, Westwood M. Regulation of IGF bioavailability in pregnancy. Mol Hum Reprod 2001; 7: 79-87.
48. Langford K, Nicolaides K and Miell J. Maternal and fetal insulin-like growth factor and their binding protein in the
second and third trimesters of human pregnancy. Hum Reprod 1998; 13:1389-1393.
49. Cianfarani S, Germani D, Rossi L, Argiro G, Boemi S, Lemon M, et al. IGF-I and IGF-binding protein-I are retalted to cortisol in human cord blood. Eur J Endocrinol 1998; 138:524-529.
50. Cianfarani S, Geremia C, Scott C, Germani D. Growth, IGF System, and cortisol in children with intrauterine growth retardation: is catch-up growth affected by reprogramming of the hypothalamic-pititary-adrenal axis? Pediatr Res 2002;
51:94-99.
51. Brace, R. and Moore, T. Transplacental, amniotic, urinary, and fetal fluid dynamics during very large volume fetal
intravenous infusions. Am J Obste Gynecol 199; 164:907- 916.
52. Philpson, E., Sokol, R. and William, T. Oligohydramnios: clinical associations and predictive value for intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983; 146:271.
53. Polin, R. and Fox, W. Fetal and Neonatal physiology. WB Saunders 1992.
54. Salha, S., Raymond, I., Pamela, J. and Stanley, J. Amniotic fluid composition in the fetal lamb with intrauterine growth restriction. Am. J Obstet 1999; 180:703-710.
55. Barker D, Gluckman P, Godfrey K, Harding J, Owens J, Robinson J. Fetal Nutrition and cardiovascular disease in
adult life. Lancet 1993; 341:938-941
56. Ibáñez L, Potau N, de Zegher F. Recognition of a new association: reduced fetal growth, precocious pubarche,
hyperinsulinism and ovarian dysfunction. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 2000; 61:141-142
57. Barker D, Hales C, Fall C, Osmond C, Phipps K, Clark P. Type 2 (non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidemia (syndrome X): relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 1993; 36:62-67.
58. Blair, E. and Stanley, F. Intrauterine growth and spastic cerebral palsy. I. Association with birth weight for gestational age. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 162:229-237.
59. Garite T, Clark R, Thorp J. Intrauterine growth restriction increases morbidity and mortality among premature neonates. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191:481-487.
61. Foulder-Hughes L and Cooke RWI. Motor, cognitive and behavioural disorders in children born very preterm. Dev
Med Child Neurol 2003; 45:97-103.1B
62. Lucas A, Morley R, Cole T, Lister G and Leeson-Payne C. Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born pre term. Lancet 1992; 339:261-264.
63. Borradori C, Zimine S, Warfield S, Freschi M, Sancho A, et al. Early alteration of structural and functional brain
development in premature infants born with intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatr Res 2004; 56:132-138.
64. Pryor, J. The identification and long term effects of fetal growth restriction. British J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 103:1116-
1122.
65. Ounsted, M, Moar V and Scott A. Neurological development of small-for gestational-age babies during de first year of life. Early Hum. Dev 1988; 16:166-172.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22490/24629448.22
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